Health Promotion & Maintenance

Birth to ~18 months. Consistent, responsive caregiving builds trust; neglect fosters mistrust. The major task is developing a sense of security.

Ages ~1-3 years. The toddler asserts independence through choices and toilet training; overcontrol fosters shame and doubt.

Ages ~3-6 years. The child initiates activities and play; excessive criticism produces guilt. Imaginative play is characteristic.

Ages ~6-12 years. The child gains competence through accomplishment and peer comparison; repeated failure breeds inferiority.

Ages ~12-18 years. Teens form a personal identity; peer group is central. Failure leads to role confusion.

Birth to ~2 years. Learning occurs through senses and motor activity; the key achievement is object permanence.